Masasi’s Trial Balance

Accounting Adjusting Entries, Posting and Preparing an Adjusted Trial Balance MASASI COMPANY, INC. Trial Balance June 30, 2008 Account Number Debit Credit 101 Cash $ 7,150 112 Accounts Receivable 6,000 126 Supplies 2,000 130 Prepaid Insurance 3,000 157 Office Equipment 15,000 201 Accounts Payable $ 4,500 209 Unearned Service Revenue 4,000 311 Common Stock 21,750 400 Service Revenue 7,900 726 Salaries Expense 4,000 729 Rent Expense 1,000 Total $38,150 Total $38,150 In addition to those accounts listed on the trial balance, the chart of accounts for Masasi Company,Inc. lso contains the following accounts and account numbers: No. 158 Accumulated Depreciation—Office Equipment, No. 212 Salaries Payable,No. 244 Utilities Payable, No. 631 Supplies Expense,No. 711 Depreciation Expense, No. 722 Insurance Expense, and No. 732 Utilities Expense. Other data: 1. Supplies on hand at June 30 are $600. 2. A utility bill for $150 has not been recorded and will not be paid until next month. 3. The insurance policy is for a year. 4. $2,500 of unearned service revenue has been earned at the end of the month. 5. Salaries of $2,000 are accrued at June 30. 6.The office equipment has a 5-year life with no salvage value. It is being depreciated at $250 per month for 60 months. 7. Invoices representing $1,000 of services performed during the month have not been recorded as of June 30. Instructions: (a) Prepare the adjusting entries for the month of June. Use J3 as the page number for your journal. (b) Post the adjusting entries to the ledger accounts. Enter the totals from the trial balance as beginning account balances and place a check mark in the posting reference column. (c) Prepare an adjusted trial balance at June 30, 2008. Use the templates in Appendix D.Complete all three tabs. (a) J3 |Date | |Account Titles and Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |2008 | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Supplies Expense | |631 | |1,400 | | | | | |Supplies | |126 | | | |? ,400 | | | | ( $2,000 – $600) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | |Utilities Expense | |732 | |? 50 | | | | | |Utilities Payable | |244 | | | |? 150 | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | |Insurance Expense | |722 | |? 50 | | | | | |Prepaid Insurance | |130 | | | |? 250 | | | | ($3,000 ? 12 months) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | |Unearned Service Revenue | |209 |2,500 | | | | | |Service Revenue | |400 | | | |2,500 | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | |Salaries Expense | |726 | |2,000 | | | | | |Salaries Payable | |212 | | | |2,000 | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | |Depreciation Expense | |711 | |? 250 | | | | | |Accumulated Depreciation— | | | | | | | | | | Office Equipment | |158 | | | |? 250 | | | | ($15,000 ? 0 months) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 30 | |Accounts Receivable | |112 | |1,000 | | | | | |Service Revenue | |400 | | | |1,000 | (b) CashNo. 101 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |7, 150 | Accounts ReceivableNo. 112 Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |? 6,000 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | |1,000 | | | |? 7,000 | SuppliesNo. 126 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |? 2,000 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |1,400 | |? 600 | Prepaid InsuranceNo. 130 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |? ,000 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |250 | |? 2,750 | Office EquipmentNo. 157 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |15,000 | Accumulated Depreciation—Office EquipmentNo. 158 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |250 | | 250 | Accounts PayableNo. 201 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |? 4,500 | Unearned Service RevenueNo. 209 Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |? 4,000 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | |2,500 | | | |? 1,500 | Salaries PayableNo. 212 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |2,000 | |2,000 | Utilities PayableNo. 244 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |? 150 | | 150 | Common StockNo. 311 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |21,750 | Service RevenueNo. 400 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | |? 7,900 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |2,500 | |10,400 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | | | |1,000 | |11,400 | Supplies ExpenseNo. 631 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 |Adjusting | |J3 | |1,400 | | | |1,400 | Depreciation ExpenseNo. 711 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | |250 | | | |? 250 | Insurance ExpenseNo. 722 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | |250 | | | |? 250 | Salaries ExpenseNo. 726 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |? ,000 | |30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | |2,000 | | | |? 6,000 | Rent ExpenseNo. 729 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. | |Debit | |Credit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Balance | |? | | | | | |1,000 | Utilities ExpenseNo. 732 |Date | |Explanation | |Ref. |Debit | |C redit | |Balance | |2008 | | | | | | | | | | | |June 30 | |Adjusting | |J3 | |150 | | | |? 150 | (c)MASASI COMPANY, INC. Adjusted Trial Balance June 30, 2008 | | |Debit | |Credit | | Cash | |$? 7,150 | | | |Accounts Receivable | | ,000 | | | |Supplies | |600 | | | |Prepaid Insurance | | 2,750 | | | |Office Equipment | |? 15,000 | | | |Accumulated Depreciation—Office | | | | | | Equipment | | | |$ 50 | |Accounts Payable | | | | 4,500 | |Unearned Service Revenue | | | |1,500 | |Salaries Payable | | | | 2,000 | |Utilities Payable | | | | 150 | |Common Stock | | | |? 1,750 | |Service Revenue | | | |? 11,400 | |Supplies Expense | |1,400 | | | |Depreciation Expense | | 250 | | | |Insurance Expense | | 250 | | | |Salaries Expense | | ,000 | | | |Rent Expense | | 1,000 | | | |Utilities Expense | | 150 | |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   | | | |$41,550 | |$41,550 | http://www. google. com. vn/url? sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=16&ved=0CGEQFjAFOAo&url=htt p%3A%2F%2Fww2. justanswer. com%2Fuploads%2FBusinessTutor%2F2010-01-13_004112_P3-2A. doc&ei=veS2UK-uBuahigf5iIGgAw&usg=AFQjCNGG338kPyI9kNi9KfLTWh4V2fYbfg&cad=rja

Public Services level

We had our induction to the fitness training by doing a fitness test which tested our fitness before we started our fitness program to see where we were at tenets wise and for the test I did it in 19. 30 minutes which wasn't that good at the time. So we started the program and firstly in our group we started doing upper body work which was fine, it did get tough in some of the exercises we did mainly because we tried to do much but luckily we didn't get any injuries so we carried on with it and with that I noticed improvements in my upper body strength within that period of two weeks.Also was working at that time so I would have gone In the gym more times but I could due to that but also because of where I work and the apartment I work In, you're having to constantly take out cages and pallets, the cages can weigh up to keg and the pallets can weigh to keg and above and that also helped as well with Improving my body strength and fitness as well so that also helped. The strengths of this was that my upper body strength has improved and that I am able to do the same exercises quicker. And that I have got a better muscle definition now to my arms and shoulders now.The weaknesses of this was that I wasn't able to come in any more due to engagements with work and also course work and rugby training. Also I was getting very fatigued with my upper body and I was getting the occasional strain which affected my performance at work and college. Improvements and changes to the fitness program: the improvements that I would make to the training program would be that I would Increase the frequency of the exercises such as do It more times a week If the time Is available to do so and that I would also add In more exercises to do to get the full benefit of the training to Improve the upper body strength.Overall I would add In more Interval training and probably also swimming as it helps your whole body. Week 3 and 4 we were doing lower body and leg training with this I didn' t notice much difference to my lower body strength. In my opinion the lower body exercises were harder to do than the upper body exercises because you couldn't fit in much variety to it so you were having to mainly do the same exercise over and over but overall it wasn't too bad and we got used to it over time and I noticed minor improvements overall such as better definition and strength overall.But the one thing I did notice was that I was constantly having to have help at work with pulling the cages out of the ware house u to leg fatigue and also during the leg exercises I kept on straining my groin and once I strained hamstring In my right leg. The strengths of doing this was that I got a minor Improvement In leg strength and also better leg tone. The weaknesses of this was that I was constantly straining my groin whilst doing the leg exercises which was very annoying and that I wish I got more out of this.Also that I was having to have to leg fatigue and also straining my groin . Improvements and changes to the training program: the way I would make changes to the lower body training would be that I loud add more variety and I would do more exercises because when I was doing the program I was doing the same exercises over and over and it got kind of boring, so I would add in other exercises such as squat thrusts and also I would add in sit up's.Week 5 and 6 we were doing cardiac vascular fitness and of which I thought I got quite a lot out of it fitness wise and I noticed difference within my cardiac vascular fitness whilst doing any kind of fitness. With improving my cardiovascular fitness there is a lot of variety which makes it not boring because you're constantly doing different activities which makes it interesting and doesn't make you lose focus as easily And plus you can do fitness like farther and interval training on a public field which is easy enough.What I would change: well I wouldn't change much to the fitness program itself but I would try t o space it out more evenly and not put it all in so closely and I would also do more training the next time I was going to do the fitness program which would improve my overall fitness a lot more. But the one thing I do lack a lot of is stamina, say that you are physically fit but you get out of breath quickly but you're till able to carry one though.The strengths of the fitness program was that over the two weeks my fitness did improve quite a lot which means that I was able to keep up with my rugby colleagues whilst at training doing touch rugby and other activities. The weaknesses of this program was that I didn't do enough fitness during the week outside of college so I didn't get the maximum out of it but if I had done fitness outside of college I would have become a lot fitter and would have been able to do a lot more fitness wise but I did get a lot fitter from the fitness program.The end of the tenets program, after the 6 weeks of training upper body, lower body and cardiova scular fitness training I have found noticeable differences/improvements in all areas that I trained. Since starting the fitness program I was back into rugby training and I have started playing again which is all good and I think if it wasn't for the six week training program I think I wouldn't have been able to cope with the needs of rugby. At the end of the six week training program we had a fitness test which was the same as the one we did at the start of the test, when I first did the testI did it in 19 minutes 30 seconds and when I did it the second time at the end of the fitness program I finished it in 16 minutes 30 seconds which is a huge difference than when the first time I did it which shows that my overall fitness and strength has improved which is a good thing because that's what I set out to achieve which is a good thing. Also whilst doing the fitness program I have been taken off one of my inhalers for my asthma which is very good which means that my asthma is going and also once it all goes I should have a better chance to get into other public services ouch as the navy.Targets for the future: my targets are that I would go swimming, even though I'm not the best of swimmers I can improve and with swimming its improves your whole body muscular wise and improves your fitness a lot and as I got approached by Cleveland second team players saying that I should play for them at the beginning of the new season and they said I probably would be playing at blindside flanker for them and I Just think that's brilliant but I would have to get lot fitter to do so. Also I will be planning to start boxing training again to get myI know the owner he would probably make me exercise like a dog and when I have spare time during the week or preferably in the morning I would possibly go on runs and set a benchmark time and each week I would try and improve it every week then getting onto a certain time. Http://www. Swimming. Org/swimsuit/why-swimming-needs- to-be- part-of-your-lifestyle/ Conclusion: In this piece of work I have evaluated my performance in the six week training programming and have included my strengths and weaknesses and also I have talked about before and after the training program and what's happened since then.

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Racial and Ethnic Discrimination in Canada Essay Example for Free

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With that being said, it is my belief that stereotypes and ignorance about others most often lead to discriminatory behavior both inside and outside the workplace. I have heard Canada described as a multicultural nation meaning that Canadians are not of any one cultural background, race or heritage. For all Canadians, including Aboriginal People, this multicultural diversity can be traced to an immigrant past. This does not mean that the majority of todays Canadians are immigrants but rather that the majority of Canadians have in their past, perhaps many generations ago, a family member who migrated here from another country. That is why many of us have a mixed ancestry, for example; Irish, Scottish, Ukrainian, French and Aboriginal, and the list can go on. Canadas Aboriginal People were the first to immigrate, and settle across the continent, tens of thousands of years before European settlers. After the European settlers came the French, followed by the English, Scots and Irish formulating Canada into the diverse country it is today. In the years before the American Civil War, thousands of black slaves escaped slavery in the United States by following the Underground Railway north to Canada. Then, at the turn of the century, American farmers moved northward into the Canadian prairies to develop farm lands. Although Canada originally consisted of a wide variety of immigrants, some people were not as welcome in the country as others and were therefore not treated equally. Those who were of different race, color, or religion then the majority of Canadians were labeled as foreigners. The use of the term foreigner held many connotations for example, different, strange or inferior and many at the time wanted to see the foreigners assimilate to fit into Canadian society. There are many events in Canadas past that has contributed to the racism and discrimination in Canada today for example, the disregard and unfair treatment of Aboriginal Peoples by Europeans who settled here. Even though a vast majority of African-Americans moved to Canada to avoid slavery, from early in the 1600s until 1834 there was a recorded 4092 slaves throughout the country, mostly living in Quebec . The Asiatic Exclusion League, which originated in California in 1905 as an anti-Oriental movement, moved north into Vancouver in 1907. The league was the main instigator in anti-Asian riots in the city since their main goal was to have all Chinese and Japanese immigrants removed from North America out of fear that they were taking jobs away from Whites . It also appears that throughout history the acceptance of immigrants in Canada greatly depended upon the economic state of the country at that time. During the Great Depression of the 1930s immigrants seeking jobs were unwelcome and overlooked for employment. Although the Government of Canada has made many advances in breaking the barriers that Aboriginal People, immigrants and minorities face in the country; immigrants today still face a number of problems when trying to enter the labor market, for example: ? Non-recognition of international credentials and work experience ? Lack of Canadian work experience ? Inability to communicate in English or French ?Insufficient labor market information prior to immigrating to Canada I have traveled to some of the major cities in Canada and was a little surprised by the degree of segregation that is apparent in these cities. By this, I mean that these larger cities, like Toronto and Vancouver, have communities which are almost completely independent from the rest of the country. These independent communities that I saw, of Chinese or Italian people, seemed to have everything they needed to survive within the community including their own schools. I could not help but wonder what effect this type of segregation has on the country. I respect the fact that all people are trying to protect their identity. At the same time, by choosing to live in Canada, shouldnt they try to integrate into the country a little more while still preserving their identities? Shouldnt they try to assimilate? How can Canada thrive as a country with so much segregation? We need to become a unified country. Not such a historical thought pattern, I guess!! It is people who have attitudes like mine that are causing problems in the country or do all people have these thoughts and choose not to admit it. I have similar negative feelings about scholarships being available only to certain people or government funding for certain people to attend university because they are a minority. I understand that differential treatment is required in order for equality to become a possibility. However, I still feel a degree of resentment about these programs being offered when I have to borrow money in an effort to obtain my university degree. Will this resentment evolve? When I hold a management position in the future, will I discriminate against a person because he or she doesnt have a huge student loan to pay and another does? It is cases like mine that causes racism to continue in society and the workplace today? With the announcement of Nova Scotias plan to increase immigration into the province came an increase in the racist comments I have heard. Since I work in bars I hear, and partake in, a great deal of conversation. When people are drinking they tend to be even more likely to say things they normally wouldnt. That is why I have heard, at times, some very racist remarks. People have said that the government should be trying to retain people in the province that are born here before they bring foreigners here. They need to take care of their own first!! It is because of these comments and feelings that I am doubtful that discrimination against people, because of their race or color, will ever be completely eliminated in the country. How do we achieve equality with so much differentiation? How do we check or personal opinions at the door when we go to work? Since it is impossible to eliminate racism and discrimination entirely in society, we need to do as much as possible to eliminate it in the workplace. We need to make changes similar to the changes companies have made in an effort to combat discrimination against people because of their religion. For example, adapting zero tolerance rules, providing more education for employees, human resource departments need to provide more opportunities for people of minorities, immigrants, and Aboriginal Peoples and barriers have to be removed for all these people who are trying to enter our labor market. March 21, 2005 is International Day for Elimination of Racial Discrimination a day to remember the struggles and challenges that Aboriginal peoples and people of color have endured. It is also a time to recognize and applaud the fact that members of these two communities have made anti-racism struggles a significant part of labors agenda. Lets respect this day and try to make some positive changes at home, school, or work toward eliminating racism.

La Crisis Petrolera

La Crisis Petrolera OBJETIVOS 1. Analizar el impacto mundial que genera a nivel econà ³mico y en los mercados de capital la crisis petrolera. 2. Identificar los factores determinantes de la crisis polà ­ticos, econà ³micos. 3. Presentar informacià ³n cronolà ³gica del desarrollo de la crisis. 4. Analizar los diferentes fenà ³menos econà ³micos presentados en esta crisis haciendo à ©nfasis en la estanflacià ³n presentada en este periodo. INTRODUCCIÓN En la dà ©cada de los 70 se dio lugar a dos crisis petroleras, la primera de ellas en el aà ±o de 1973 y la segunda en el aà ±o de 1979, dichas crisis fueron generadas por los diversos intereses y objetivos que se manejaban entre los paà ­ses miembros de la OPEP (Organizacià ³n de paà ­ses Exportadores de Petrà ³leo), las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras mà ¡s importantes del mundo y los principales paà ­ses compradores como los Estados Unidos, durante los periodos de crisis la fluctuacià ³n fue incontrolable, caracterizada por el incremento constante de los precios del barril y alimentada por los intereses econà ³micos de los reinos à ¡rabes y la acumulacià ³n de excedentes por parte de las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras, hechos que impactaron fuertemente a la economà ­a, afectando a los paà ­ses importadores del crudo y a los consumidores de los bienes finales en los cuales es necesaria la implementacià ³n del mismo. Dentro del marco de la crisis tambià ©n juega un papel muy importante el aspecto polà ­tico principalmente el entre Estados Unidos y los paà ­ses del golfo Pà ©rsico con la mayor intervencià ³n de Arabia Saudà ­, por ser el principal productor de petrà ³leo del mundo, dicho papel fue determinante en el periodo de crisis debido a que fue el actor que guià ³ las decisiones de la OPEP, como en el caso de la guerra à ¡rabe-israelà ­ , cuando El gobierno saudà ­ toma la decisià ³n de iniciar un embargo en la produccià ³n, reduciendo un porcentaje importante de la produccià ³n y afectando las economà ­as por los conflictos polà ­ticos. Las consecuencias de las crisis solamente fueron negativas para los consumidores por el alza en los precios, pero fueron benà ©ficas para los productores y las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras debido a la acumulacià ³n de excedentes lograda durante el periodo la cual se puede ver reflejada en la balanza de pagos de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes. Dichos acontecimientos mostraron que la elasticidad de l a demanda en aquel periodo fue alta, los productores à ¡rabes le mostraron al mundo el poder sobre este mercado y los consumidores entendieron la importancia de la energà ­a. 1. ANTECEDENTES * En 1956 el geà ³logo y director de investigaciones de Shell, inicià ³ un detallado estudio sobre los ritmos del descubrimiento de yacimientos petrolà ­feros en Amà ©rica del Norte, su trabajo demuestra matemà ¡ticamente que la explotacià ³n de todo yacimiento sigue una curva en forma de campana que toma su tiempo para fluir, ademà ¡s concluyo que la produccià ³n americana alcanzarà ­a su punto culminante en el aà ±o de 1970 y que caerà ­a rà ¡pidamente durante los siguientes aà ±os ocasionando un aumento de la dependencia del exterior, tambià ©n afirmà ³ que era inevitable una disminucià ³n de la produccià ³n a pesar de las mejoras en los mà ©todos de perforacià ³n y las nuevas tà ©cnicas de extraccià ³n, pero sus teorà ­as no tuvieron aceptacià ³n ante el gobierno de Estados Unidos, sin embargo sus postulados se cumplieron. * En 1967 el petrà ³leo supero al carbà ³n y se impuso como primera fuente de anergia alrededor del mundo. * Antes de los aà ±os 70 no se mostraban intereses relevantes sobre los recursos petroleros de Arabia Saudà ­, pero despuà ©s de 1970 la produccià ³n Norteamericana inicià ³ su caà ­da a pique y el petrà ³leo Saudà ­ se convierte indispensable. * En 1970 la produccià ³n petrolera Saudà ­ representaba el 13 % de las explotaciones mundiales, y en 1973 pasà ³ al 21 % * El petrà ³leo representaba el 95% de los recursos del reino à ¡rabe, de los cuales el 20% revertà ­a en la familia real. * A mediados de los aà ±os 70 el petrà ³leo representaba mà ¡s de la mitad de las necesidades econà ³micas globales de la humanidad representadas en un 54%, la cantidad de consumido pasà ³ de 300 millones de toneladas en 1960 a mà ¡s de 500 millones en 1975, aumentado en un 160%. * En 1971 se formo una comisià ³n encabezada por Richard Nixon y presidida por el general G. A. Lincoln con el fin de examinar la polà ­tica energà ©tica norteamericana con el trabajo de varios consultores, las conclusiones fueron: 1. Resaltar la necesidad de Estados Unidos de provocar una subida el precio del petrà ³leo importado para lograr estabilizar el precio interno a un nivel elevado e incentivar las inversiones necesarias para el desarrollo de las fuentes nacionales de energà ­a. 2. La comisià ³n tambià ©n recomienda el saneamiento de las relaciones con los paà ­ses exportadores para evitar alteraciones en las importaciones americanas. * El 14 de Febrero de 1971 en Teherà ¡n (Irà ¡n), los representantes de la compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras firmaron un acuerdo con la OPEP, debido a que su situacià ³n solo tenà ­a dos opciones ejecutar o ser ejecutados, por lo tanto firmaron un acuerdo de Capitulacià ³n el cual marco el fin del principio del (Fifty-Fifty) â€Å"mitad- mitad†, desde ese momento los paà ­ses productores poseen el 55% y obtienen un suplemento de 0.30 dà ³lares por barril sobre el precio establecido, sin embargo alcanzo el 0.50 dà ³lares en el aà ±o 1975. * En Julio de 1972 el reino à ¡rabe alcanzà ³ a producir 5.4 millones de barriles diarios y llega a 8.4 millones en 1973 * Para 1973 la industria petrolera necesitaba grandes sumas de capital debido a que afrontaban dificultades financieras, algunas compaà ±Ãƒ ­as Exxon, Shell, BP, PHILIPPS PETROLEUM ocultaban que estaban al borde la quiebra, debido a que habà ­an invertido en proyectos cuyo presupuesto inicial sobrepasà ³ todas sus estimaciones, tales como la construccià ³n de oleoductos, explotacià ³n de zonas fuera de las costas, gigantescos campos petrolà ­feros y nuevas tecnologà ­as para perforaciones, por lo tanto la crisis desatada por los paà ­ses de la OPEP fue la salvacià ³n a su crisis econà ³mica. 2. FACTORES DETERMINANTES DE LA CRISIS En 1964 el prà ­ncipe Feisal de Arabia Saudà ­, sacà ³ del poder a su hermano Saoud. En ese entonces el presidente de Egipto Nasser, era considerado como un puente que permità ­a a Rusia y su comunismo extender su influencia en la regià ³n, por lo que el monarca Saudà ­ debà ­a de alguna forma, depender de la proteccià ³n Estadounidense, sin embargo pidià ³ que los servicios secretos de Estados Unidos no operaran mas dentro de su reino sin tener en cuenta que los americanos no necesitaban de ello, la monarquà ­a conservadora de este paà ­s, la dinastà ­a de los Seoud, se apoyaba en una Islam radical: el Wahhabismo, religià ³n donde el Corà ¡n y la tradicià ³n (Hadith) deben ser interpretados literalmente, Faysal promueve la consolidacià ³n del Wahhabismo imponiendo sus reglas totalitarias, hecho que favorecà ­a a Estados Unidos y a la CIA debido a que el Wahhabismo dirigà ­a y vigilaba a la poblacià ³n, asegurando de cierta manera la estabilidad del paà ­s y junto con ella la estable produccià ³n de petrà ³leo. Estados Unidos tratà ³ de convencer de bajar los precios a los paà ­ses de la OPEP, todo inicià ³ en 1971 con el acuerdo de Teherà ¡n, donde se dieron negociaciones un poco precipitadas entre los representantes de la OPEP y los majors cuyo resultado fue un acuerdo que incluye un alza de 35 cà ©ntimos por barril mà ¡s un aumento anual de 5 cà ©ntimos por barril y otro del 2.5% al aà ±o para compensar la inflacià ³n, dicho acuerdo inicialmente se estipulo que debà ­a estar vigente hasta el aà ±o de 1975, sin embargo 15 meses despuà ©s de su inicio, Estados Unidos empezà ³ una nueva subida de precios de 1976 a 1980, ocasionado por el nombramiento de James Akins como embajador en Arabia Saudà ­, quien fue el director de la administracià ³n de carburantes y de energà ­a en el departamento de Estado y consejero para el petrà ³leo del presidente Nixon, Akins fue el encargado de preparar el informe de la segunda comisià ³n formada para revisar la polà ­tica petrolà ­fera Estadounidense, informe en el cual recomendà ³ la subida de precios.. En Junio de 1972 se reunià ³ el Congreso Arabe del Petrà ³leo de las Naciones con motivo de la celebracià ³n de la nacionalizacià ³n de la Irak Petroleum Company, que controlaba desde hacà ­a 50 aà ±os la explotacià ³n del petrà ³leo en Irak y Siria, en dicho congreso Akins dio un discurso a los asistentes en el cual afirmà ³ que algunos paà ­ses de la OPEP estimaban aumentar el precio del barril hasta que llegara a 5 dà ³lares, cuando en realizada la OPEP ni siquiera habà ­a discutido sobre la variacià ³n de los precios del petrà ³leo y teniendo en cuenta que en el acuerdo del Terà ¡n el precià ³ del barril aumento casi en un 50% pasando de 1.80 a 2.60 dà ³lares, el cual fue el primer aumento desde la creacià ³n de la OPEP, por lo tanto este discursà ³ sorprendià ³ a los asistentes y significo una leccià ³n de radicalismo polà ­tico por parte de su adversario. Por otra parte, en 1973 Nixon pone a las fuerzas Estadounidenses en estado de alerta nuclear por primera vez despuà ©s de la segunda guerra mundial como respuesta a la aparicià ³n de la flota rusa en el mar mediterrà ¡neo la cual se consideraba como una amenaza para Arabia Saudà ­, el paà ­s que le brindaba la mayor cantidad de petrà ³leo a su primer aliado Estados Unidos, por lo tanto los paà ­ses à ¡rabes sintieron apoyo de los Norteamericanos pero a cambio de aumentar la produccià ³n para cubrir la demanda americana, punto que favorecià ³ a occidente. En 1973 en và ­speras de la crisis petrolera, Arabia Saudà ­ tenà ­a mà ¡s del 25 % de las reservas mundiales de petrà ³leo, el 90% de la produccià ³n Saudà ­ provenà ­a de 6 enormes yacimientos concentrados en una pequeà ±a zona del reino à ¡rabe, destacando el mayor yacimiento de petrà ³leo del mundo descubierto en 1948 llamado Ghawar contando con aproximadamente el 17% de todas las reservas de petrà ³leo accesibles en el mundo. A principio de los aà ±os 70 las cuatro compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que formaban ARAMCO: Exxon, Texaco, Mobil y Chevron, fijaban el precio del petrà ³leo producido en Arabia Saudà ­ las cuales pagaban una tasa baja al reino por cada barril vendido, pero a principios del aà ±o 1973 se enfrentaron a mà ºltiples tensiones, temà ­an que sus empresas fueran nacionalizadas, por lo tanto decidieron aumentar el nivel de produccià ³n aprovechando el alza de precios de los barriles, con el fin de poder extraer el mà ¡ximo petrà ³leo antes de que los dirigentes Saudà ­es tomaran el control de los yacimientos, situacià ³n que finalmente se dio en 1976 cuando el consorcio se nacionalizà ³ en cerca de un 60%. 3. DESARROLLO DE LA CRISIS La primera crisis petrolera se presento en el aà ±o de 1973, el 14 de Octubre inicia con las negociones entre los paà ­ses miembros de la OPEP Organizacià ³n de paà ­ses Exportadores de Petrà ³leo y las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras. El 16 de Octubre, en la ciudad de Kuwait, seis estados del golfo: Arabia Saudà ­, Irà ¡n, Irak, Abu Dhabi, Qatar y Kuwait) deciden unilateralmente aumentar el precio del petrà ³leo pasando de 2 a 3.65 dà ³lares el barril. En aquellos dà ­as se estaba desencadenado la cuarta guerra à ¡rabe-israelà ­, mediante combates, por lo tanto los ministros del petrà ³leo de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes miembros de la OPEP establecieron un embargo y optaron por reducir la produccià ³n en un 5%, mediante la elaboracià ³n de un comunicado en el cual se precisaba que dicho porcentaje seria aplicado todos los meses a partir de las cantidades del mes anterior, hasta la evacuacià ³n total de los israelitas del territorio à rabe ocupados desde Junio de 1967 y el r econocimiento de los derechos legà ­timos del pueblo palestino. La subida del precio de forma unilateral fue el resultado de largas y complejas negociaciones entre los paà ­ses productores y las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras, mientras que el embargo fue decretado segà ºn lo manifestà ³ el secretario general de la OPEP â€Å"solamente para alertar a la opinià ³n pà ºblica de las naciones occidentales sobre el problema de Israel†,[1] lo que podrà ­a mostrar que nada tenà ­a que ver un hecho con el otro aparentemente, pero era el mejor medio para llevar los precios a niveles mucho mà ¡s elevados. Esta crisis tambià ©n genero una gran solidaridad entre los paà ­ses à ¡rabes como no lo habà ­an conseguido là ­deres como Gamal Abdel Nasser, en el momento de la nacionalizacià ³n del canal del Suez. El 16 de octubre se convoca una reunià ³n urgente en Kuwait de la OPAEP (grupo de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes en el seno de la OPEP), por el rey Feisal, esto con el fin de hacer al presidente Sadat, junto con el emir de Kuwait, en esta reunià ³n todos los paà ­ses à ¡rabes exportadores se comprometieron a disminuir la produccià ³n partiendo del mes vigente en un mà ­nimo de 5% por cada mes siguiente â€Å"hasta que se complete la retirada de Israel de todo los territorios à ¡rabes ocupados en junio 1967 y hasta que los derechos legales del pueblo de palestina se hayan restablecido†.[2] Arabia Saudà ­ decide no hacer una reduccià ³n en la produccià ³n no solo en un 5 sino en un 10%. Siguiendo esta iniciativa varios paà ­ses tambià ©n inician a hacer cortes en el mismo porcentaje, y en la mayorà ­a se prohà ­be la exportacià ³n a Estados Unidos y algunos de ellos tambià ©n a Holanda. Estos cortes junto a los ocasionados por el conflicto que se venà ­a cursando en ese momento redujeron en un 15% los suministros de petrà ³leo a Occidente en un tiempo de dos semanas. A inicios de noviembre en otra reunià ³n en el mismo lugar se decidià ³ un reduccià ³n del 25 por ciento generales respecto del nivel anterior de la guerra, esto hizo que todos los paà ­ses consumidores tomaran medidas urgentes, prepararse para una escasez. Adicionalmente a esto fue la decisià ³n del incremento en el precio en una gran magnitud sin algo nunca antes visto, el 70 % o mà ¡s.[3] EL PRIMER IMPACTO DE LA CRISIS PETROLERA (Precios de referencia de precios por barril ) Tipo de crudo 1 de octubre 16 de octubre % incremento Arabia ligero 34  ° 3.011 5.119 70 Irà ¡n ligero 34 ° 2.995 5.091 70 Iraq, Bastah 35 ° 2.997 5.061 70 Kuwait 31 ° 2.884 4.903 70 Abu, Dhabi, Murban39 ° 3.084 6.045 96 Libia 40 ° 4.604 8.925 94 Frente a estas decisiones la reaccià ³n que se esperaba de los paà ­ses consumidores era un respuesta agresiva o de ataque, pero por el contrario fue nula, pues en este momento la economà ­a de ellos estaba en auge y particularmente desde la devaluacià ³n de facto del dà ³lar en diciembre de 1971, con crecimientos de la produccià ³n industrial del 6,3 por ciento en 1972 y hasta junio de 1973, llevando a los occidentales a el punto mà ¡ximo de su capacidad productiva, este à ©xito o prosperidad tambià ©n se veà ­a o se extendà ­a a los paà ­ses menos desarrollados, al reforzar sus mercados en exportaciones en volumen y en valor. Al no recibir respuesta los paà ­ses à ¡rabes decidieron dar un nuevo golpe, duplicando los ya elevados precios en enero de 1974, adicionalmente a esto no cumplieron lo pacto de reducir la produccià ³n de 75% a un 70% lo que hicieron fue aumentarla en un 85%. Arabia saudita un poco mas consiente del efecto devastador que ejercerà ­an sobre las economà ­as de los paà ­ses industriales, trato sin à ©xito de limitar el alza a un 50%. El aumento final de un 130 % fue una propuesta final del el Irà ¡n y Arabia Saudà ­. El SEGUNDO IMPACTO DE LA CRISIS PETROLERA (Precios de referencia de precios por barril ) Tipo de crudo 16 de octubre 1 de enero % incremento Arabia ligero 34  ° 5.119 11.651 128 Iran ligero 34 ° 5.091 11.875 133 Iraq, Bastah 35 ° 5.061 11.671 131 Kuwait 31 ° 4.903 11.545 135 Abu, Dhabi, Murban39 ° 6.045 12.636 109 Libia 40 ° 8.925 13.765 54 Con este nuevo incremento los precios de multiplicaron prà ¡cticamente por cuatro o por ocho si se comparan con los precios existentes en el 70, esto comparado con el resto de las materias primas y los bienes manufacturados que se multiplicaron por menos de 2% en el mismo periodo de tiempo. El sistema de fijacià ³n de precios mediante negociacià ³n quedo sustituido por la decisià ³n unilateral de los paà ­ses exportadores, a partir de 1974 se realizaron mas incrementos pero mà ¡s moderados que los de octubre y noviembre hasta la siguiente gran crisis en 1979. LA PRIMERA CRISIS DEL PETRÓLEO Fuente: Fondo Monetario Internacional 4. IMPACTO SOBRE LOS PAISES EXPORTADORES Y LAS GRANDES COMPAÑIAS. Los grandes beneficiados con la crisis petrolera fueron los paà ­ses exportadores de petrà ³leo, tanto en tà ©rminos monetarios como en tà ©rminos de participacià ³n y control de sus reservas, seguidos por las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras. Los excedentes de las balanzas posteriores a 1974 por cuenta corriente de los paà ­ses de la OPEP ascendieron a 68.000 millones de dà ³lares, y promediaron los 35.000 millones de dà ³lares anuales en el periodo de 74/78, la OPEP obtuvo un excedente conjunto de unos 10.000 millones de dà ³lares lo que equivalà ­a entonces a la mitad del total mundial de las reservas monetarias oficiales. Estos excedentes no se repartieron en forma homogà ©nea y las diferencias entre los paà ­ses fueron enormes algunos paà ­ses se volvieron inmensamente ricos de la noche a la maà ±ana mientras que otros solo obtuvieron un efecto moderadamente favorable. Por esto la renta per cà ¡pita ascendà ­a en 1978 a 15.000 dà ³lares en Kuwait por encima de cualquier paà ­s industrial, mientras que indonesia otro paà ­s de la OPEP con 300 dà ³lares de renta per cà ¡pita comparado con otro paà ­s como la India la diferencia no era mà ­nima que no era un paà ­s productor de petrà ³leo. Otros paà ­ses como el Irà ¡n estaban en camino de entrar en la era de la industrializacià ³n, pero esto traerà ­a consecuencias para el rà ©gimen del Shah y para el propio pueblo iranà ­, Nigeria seguà ­a el mismo camino que Irà ¡n, pero en forma mà ¡s gradual, estas diferencias se mantenido despuà ©s de la crisis petrolera, Arabia Saudita por ejemplo, con 8n millones de habitantes , posee el 38,5 por ciento de las reservas de la OPEP, Ecuador con una poblacià ³n de 9 millones tiene solo el 0,3 por ciento, por esto las rentas y las capacidades de absorcià ³n de los mercados individuales son diferentes, la perspectivas que par la industrializacià ³n ofrecen las rentas petroleras son igualmente muy distintas. Las diferencias se hicieron patentes en los aà ±os siguientes a la crisis, como consecuencias de la reduccià ³n de ventas y el fuerte incremento en las importaciones, lo que trajo como resultado un deterioro de la posicià ³n exterior de algunos paà ­ses exportadores mientras que otros continuaban con fuertes superà ¡vits, Arabia Saudà ­ por ejemplo mantuvo durante todo el periodo un fuerte excedente por cuenta corriente, mientras la balanza por cuenta corriente de Argelia para a ser deficitaria a partir de 1975. En 1978 Nigeria y Venezuela presentaron dà ©ficits tambià ©n importantes aunque en general el superà ¡vit de la OPEP alcanzo la cifra de 177.700 millones en este periodo. Evolucià ³n de las balanzas de pagos a nivel mundial (Balanzas por cuenta corriente incluyendo incluyendo transferencias oficiales) (miles de millones de dà ³lares) 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1974 a 1978 Paà ­ses industrializados 17,7 -139 17,8 -2,2 -4,9 30,5 27,3 Siete paà ­ses mayores 12,7 -4,9 22,1 7,5 7,6 33,9 66,2 Otros paà ­ses industriales 5 -8,9 -4,3 -9,7 -12,6 -3,5 -39,0 Paà ­ses en và ­as de desarrollo Paà ­ses exportadores de petrà ³leo 6.7 68,3 35,4 40,3 30,8 2,9 177,7 Paà ­ses no exportadores de petrà ³leo -11,6 -37,0 -46,5 -32,0 -28,3 -39,2 -183,0 Por à ¡reas à frica -2,1 -3,5 -6,9 -6,1 -6,6 -9,0 -32,1 Asia -2,4 -9,6 -8,9 -2,6 -0,6 -6,8 -28,5 Europa 0,3 -4,3 -4,7 -4,1 -7,6 -5,2 -25,9 Oriente Medio -2,6 -4,5 -7,0 -5,4 -5,2 -6,5 28,6 Amà ©rica del sur -4,7 -13,5 -16,4 -11,9 -8,7 -13,2 -63,7 TOTAL 12,8 17,4 6,7 6,1 -2,4 -5,8 22,0 Fuentes: Fondo Monetario Internacional y OCDE El fuerte incremento de las reservas monetarias de la OPEP reflejarà ­a la marcada preferencia de estos paà ­ses por formas liquidas de inversià ³n de sus fondos excedentarios, por esto en 1974 los dos tercios de los fondos disponibles para inversiones fueron depositados en bancos o invertidos en bonos del tesoro, fundamentalmente en los paà ­ses industrializados, aun que en los aà ±os siguientes se redujeron los porcentajes a pesar de algunas inversiones como la del Irà ¡n en Krupp, de Kuwait en Daimlet- Benz y el de Libia en Fiat. El manejo fundamental de los dà ³lares procedentes del petrà ³leo (petrodà ³lares), correspondià ³ principalmente a la banca internacional, con bastante eficacia quien tambià ©n ayudo a financiar a veces con bastantes riesgos, pero tambià ©n con sustanciales beneficios los dà ©ficits de las balanzas por cuenta corriente de gran nà ºmero de paà ­ses. El desglose por estados productores paso de 14.400 millones de dà ³lares en 1972 a 119.200 millones en 1978 con incremento en la percepcià ³n media por barril en mà ¡s de seis veces. Las rentas de petrà ³leo de los principales paà ­ses exportadores (miles de millones de dà ³lares) 1972 1974 1976 1978 Arabia Saudita 3,1 22,6 33,5 35,8 Irà ¡n 2,4 17,5 22,0 20,5 Irak 0,6 5,7 8,5 9,8 Venezuela 1,9 8,7 8,0 5,6 Nigeria 1,2 8,9 8,5 8,2 Libia 1,6 6,0 7,5 8,6 Kuwait 1,7 7,0 8,5 9,2 Qatar 0,3 1,6 2,0 2,0 E.A.U 0,5 5,5 7,0 8,0 Argelia 0,7 3,7 4,5 5,0 Otro 0,4 3,3 6,1 6,5 Total OPEP 14,4 90,5 116,1 119,2 Ingresos medios por barril ($) 1,9 8,4 11,1 11,8 Fuente: El petrà ³leo y la crisis mundial Otra consecuencia que para los paà ­ses exportadores tuvo la crisis petrolera, fue la del cambio de propiedad del crudo extraà ­do en los mismos. Aà ±os antes de la crisis el petrà ³leo era propiedad mà ¡s o menos exclusiva de las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que lo habà ­an encontrado y principalmente de las siete grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as internacionales, la fuerza de estas se basaba en su acceso a grandes cantidades de crudo a â€Å" precio de coste† del que podà ­an disponer al coste de su produccià ³n mà ¡s las regalà ­as (mà ¡s o menos el 12,5 por ciento de los precios de referencia) y la fiscalidad( normalmente el 55 por ciento de los beneficios teà ³ricos basados en los precios de referencia) A principios de 1974 Kuwait concreto un acuerdo con las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as que operaban en su territorio, Gulf y BP, por el que el 60% del crudo pasaba a ser propiedad de Kuwait, acuerdo que se hizo extensivo rà ¡pidamente a otros paà ­ses, en los siguientes cuatros aà ±os siguientes el proceso quedo completado con la nacionalizacià ³n de las concesiones por los paà ­ses productores. Para las grandes corporaciones el resultado de la cuarta guerra à rabe- Israelà ­ fue un gran beneficio econà ³mico al igual que para los Estado Unidos lo fue en lo polà ­tico( y mà ¡s tarde en lo econà ³mico consecuencias de los gigantescos beneficios acumulados por sus sociedades petroleras y por su gran banca a la que habà ­an de afluir una gran parte de los excedentes monetarios acumulados por los paà ­ses productores de petrà ³leo) , las cifras en el cuarto trimestre del 1973 comparadas con las de los à ºltimos trimestres de los dos aà ±os anteriores eran noblemente altas, estos beneficios se prologaron hasta los aà ±os 80 y aun mas doblemente con la segunda crisis petrolera de 1979, la guerra hizo surgir un nuevo y poderoso cartel de la OPEP y como mencionà ¡bamos hizo perder a las compaà ±Ãƒ ­as la propiedad directa de crudo en la mayor parte de los paà ­ses, esta estrategia fue aprovechada a fondo, proporcionando a estas grandes sociedades un incremento de su poderà ­o econà ³mico en proporciones que no hubieran podido soà ±ar. Beneficios comparados de las grandes sociedades petroleras Unidad: millones de dà ³lares 1971 1972 1973 Exxon 357,0 353,0 638,0 Royal Dutch Shell 209,3 110,5 413,7 Texaco 218,2 207,4 307,4 Mobil Oil 134,1 140,9 231,2 Standard Oil de California 135,0 150,5 276,0 Gulf Oil 141,0 110,0 210,0 British Petroleum 87,0 35,0 135,0 Evolucià ³n de los beneficios declarados por las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as 1972-1978 Unidad: millones de dà ³lares 1972 1974 1976 1978 Exxon 1.532 2.142 2.641 2.763 Mobil 574 1.047 943 1.126 Standard Oil de California 547 970 880 1.106 Royal Dutch Shell 282 1.161 1.300 1.086 Texaco 889 1.586 870 852 Gulf Oil 197 1.065 816 791 British Petroleum 71 487 180 444 Fuentes: El petrà ³leo y la crisis mundial 5. EL IMPACTO SOBRE LOS PAà SES CONSUMIDORES El tema de los paà ­ses consumidores se centro en la disminucià ³n de los suministros de petrà ³leo provenientes de los paà ­ses à ¡rabes, pero a medida que se fue restableciendo se dieron cuenta que el verdadero problema era la multiplicacià ³n por 4 del precio del petrà ³leo. Esta alza fue interpretada como una agresià ³n totalmente injustificada. Los paà ­ses productores de petrà ³leo y las grandes compaà ±Ãƒ ­as petroleras se convirtieron ante la opinià ³n pà ºblica en los responsables de todos los males: la desaceleracià ³n del crecimiento, la inflacià ³n, del incremento del paro, de las restricciones al consumo que tan duramente afectaron a la mayorà ­a de los paà ­ses consumidores en el 73/74. Entre los paà ­ses desarrollados los tres mejor que menor la superaron fueron los Estados Unidos, el Japà ³n y la Republica Federal Alemana aun que por razones diferentes. La R.F.A. debido a su poderà ­o industrial, de un plan energà ©tico de lucha contra la inflacià ³n y a la calidad de sus redes de exportacià ³n no llego a ver su equilibrio de pagos exteriores en peligro, el Japà ³n un caso similar aunque tuvo un fuerte impacto inicial pero logro recuperarse, en cuanto a los Estados Unidos, el sistema monetario internacional le permite un desequilibrio permanente de su balanza por cuenta corriente, ademà ¡s como ya se habà ­a mencionado el cambio de la situacià ³n era un punto a su favor, sino ademà ¡s porque los dà ©ficits de las paà ­ses europeos obligaban a estos a conseguir mas y mas dà ³lares, que continà ºan siendo la pieza clave del sistema monetario internacional y las alzas del petrà ³leo permitieron a muchos pequeà ±os productores a pasar a ser competitivos y obtener enormes beneficios adicionales. Por el contrario para el resto de los paà ­ses industrializados y sobre todo para los del tercer mundo no productores de petrà ³leo, la crisis fue una verdadera catà ¡strofe, pues los dà ©ficits se elevaron a 183.000 millones de dà ³lares en el periodo de 1974 -78 y a 39.000 millones para los paà ­ses de industrializacià ³n media. En lugar de lograr un acuerdo de unià ³n entre los paà ­ses consumidores fue lo contrario un insolidaridad, es decir se lanzaron a una polà ­tica de â€Å"sà ¡lvese quien pueda† intentando firmar acuerdos bilaterales con los paà ­ses productores mediante delegaciones aisladas, tratando cada una de obtener los mejores beneficios que el vecino. Aunque se hizo un intento en Washington por lo representes de los 13 paà ­ses importadores de petrà ³leo no se consiguià ³ nada practico y cada uno siguià ³ sus negociaciones independientes como por ejemplo para conseguir cantidades especificas de petrà ³leo a cambio de ciertas mercancà ­as (escasas) manufacturadas: armamento moderno y tecnologà ­a de punta, con esto consiguieron que los gobiernos exportadores de que su petrà ³leo era tan importante como el oro y asà ­ estos nacionalizaron mà ¡s rà ¡pido su producciones con las alzas en los precios y generando los asà ­ el camino para siguiente crisis cinco aà ±os despuà ƒ ©s. La primera crisis petrolera se manifestà ³ en primer lugar en una caà ­da generalizada del ritmo del crecimiento econà ³mico. Todos los paà ­ses de LA OCDE (Organizacià ³n para la Cooperacià ³n y el Desarrollo Econà ³mico), experimentaron recesiones de mayor o menor intensidad, los intercambios al interior de esta organizacià ³n se redujeron en 12% en volumen entre el primer semestre de 1974, y el primer trimestre de 1975. Las empresas temiendo nuevas restricciones en la produccià ³n o nuevos aumentos en los precios del petrà ³leo, prefirieron liquidar sus stocks de productos terminados para responder a la demanda antes que incrementar la produccià ³n, por lo que las inversiones se vinieron abajo, acentuando aun mà ¡s la recesià ³n. El efecto de la primera crisis petrolera sobre el crecimiento econà ³mico Tasas de variacià ³n anual <

Technology Swells Ocean Exploration :: Technology Evolution Essays

Technology Swells Ocean Exploration Railroads and computers. So, not only what to these have in common, but also what are they doing in paper about computers? Well to start, the Professor did say to have fun with the paper! Secondly, the guns show how long technology takes to evolve and than how quick evolution can happen. It took centuries to go from smooth bore to rifled bore in the guns. Flintlock gun were still being used at the start of the American Civil War, 1861. By the time the war ended, 4 years later, percussion guns were in style. The Gatling gun showed up around 1867, it was replaced in under 100 years with the .50 caliber machine gun. Thirdly, railroads and computers are a very interesting study on how quick technology can advance, the problems it encounters, and the impact it has on society. The first American train made its run in 1830. Less than 40 years later the transcontinental railroad was completed. The rail companies had to overcome problems never before encountered: switchbacks up hills, grading, etc. The impact on the America society was, and still is, huge. The computer technology has basically followed the same timeframe, overcame unknown problems, and is having a huge impact on society. Looking at these two comparisons is very interesting. As a Maritime Historian an understanding of past technology is important in determining a time frame of an incident. Plus, an understanding of how to use todays’ technology to assist in finding and recording of the past is an absolute necessity. Computers hold the key to major research projects by way of technology, Internet, and E-Mail. As a Maritime Explorer advances in technology will continue to be used to find, track and understand the water world around us. Clive Cussler wrote, "We have mapped and photographed almost every square inch of the moon, but we have viewed less than one percent of what is covered by water". The computer will be of the same great benefit when it comes to the exploration of the oceans as the computer has benefited the exploration of outer space. This benefit will be to two major forms; finding and understanding the past (cause and effect), finding the as yet unknown and determining its benefits. As any historian will say, we need to know where we came from in order to understand where we are going. What technological advances over the centuries have led to the exploration of the oceans?

Peter The Great :: essays research papers

In 1682, Sophia Romanov sent her palace guards to get rid of her â€Å"heirs† and other conflicts with her reign. Luckily, her two brothers 16 year old Ivan, and 10 year old Peter escaped with there step-mother. Later on, Sophia declared that both Peter and Ivan are the czars of Russia. In 1689, Sophia lost the mobility of her legs. She had her guards, once again try and kill Peter. The guards, realizing that Peter was in communication with the Gods, didn’t touch Peter for they feared the wrath of God would get them. Peter instantly had Sophia banished to a tower outside the city of Moscow. Soon after, Peter married, and had an heir to the throne.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eight million people lived in Russia. Ninety-five percent of all of the population consisted of serfs, the merchants, nobles, and elite only populated five percent of Russia. The elite, like the serfs, were not very well educated at all. Timmerman, a knowledgeable man from Germany, taught and showed Peter all of the nautical instruments need to navigate a ship. Peter became very interested in nautical things. Peter soon left Russia and plundered Europe for knowledge, inventions, and great minds to bring back to Russia. His voyage ended in the rich and luxurious city of Amsterdam. Peter began to study Holland’s ships and navy, and hired ship builders to go home with him, and help him prepare a sea power. Peter, wanting to really learn how to build a ship, signed on as a carpenter to hide his true identity, because he wanted to work without that being a distraction. After 4 months, Peter had built a ship of his own, called the â€Å"Peter and Mary.† So on enough, he sailed out to distant countries to borrow plans for astronomical tools, mints, cannons, and weapons. During his voyage, Peter’s palace guards had started a revolt in Moscow. Peter rushed back and saw 1800 servants in chains. He knew there was more behind this revolt than just bad ruling. He had every one of his guards interrogated 6 days a week, but found no new evidence. In the end, Peter had hung 1200 men.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The day Peter returned from his voyage, he went to the church about the way Russian men must crop their beards. Peter saw in Europe, that everyone had their beards very short and maintained. Instantly, Peter cut all of his general’s and servant’s beards.

Is most efficient at heating water Essay

This was done by counting the number of different bonds broken i. e. C-H and using a data table to find out the amount of energy required. Secondly, I worked out the energy released by bonds being made again by counting the bonds and using a data table. I subtracted the second number from the first to work out the energy released by the alcohol. Methanol Balanced Equation: CH3OH+1. 5O2–>CO2+2H2O Bonds Broken Energy Required for Bond Breaking (kJ/mol) Bonds Made Energy Released from Bonds Made (kJ/mol). Total Ene  Bonds Broken Energy Required for Bond Breaking (kJ/mol) Bonds Made Energy Released from Bonds Made (kJ/mol) Total Energy Used + 12383 kJ/mol Total Energy Released – 15398 kJ/mol Total Molar Energy of Combustion. Heptanol Balanced Equation:   Bonds Broken Energy Required for Bond Breaking (kJ/mol) Bonds Made Energy Released from Bonds Made (kJ/mol)Total Energy Used + 14299 kJ/mol Total Energy Released.-Bonds Broken Energy Required for Bond Breaking (kJ/mol) Bonds Made Energy Released from Bonds Made (kJ/mol) 1/mol Total Molar Energy of Combustion, ? H (kJ/mol) = +16215-20222= -4007 This data justifies my hypothesis. More energy is released as you go up the series of alcohols therefore the water will heat up by a given temperature with less alcohol being burnt. GCSE CHEMISTRY COURSEWORK: Obtaining While obtaining evidence I took into account many safety points into consideration:   Safety goggles were worn at all times I stood up so I could quickly move out of the way if there were any spillages etc. I tucked my tie in my shirt to avoid it catching fire I also made sure I took accurate readings by: Stirring the water to maintain an even temperature   Closing windows that might cause a draught   Keeping the tin at the same height above the flame. Repeating anomalous results GCSE CHEMISTRY COURSEWORK: Analysing To produce a graph of ‘molecular mass’ versus ‘enthalpy of combustion’ both these values need to be calculated. Here is an example: First, the energy released has to be calculated. This can be done using the following formula: q=energy released m=mass of water (g) c=specific heat capacity of the liquid heated (4. 18J/g/i c for water) ?t=temperature change of water For my first piece of data this is how q would be calculated. Temperature Change: 10. 5i c Mass of Water: 400g (remember that water has a mass of 1g per cm3) Using the formula: q=400Ãâ€"4. 18Ãâ€"10. 5. Second, the molar heat of combustion must be calculated. This can be done using the following formula: -q=total energy transferred to the water (negative because the reaction is exothermic) n=number of moles (weight difference/formula mass) x1000=convert J’s to kJ’s Continuing with the same example: Energy Released: 17556J (this was worked out with the first equation) Weight Change: 1. 20g Formula Mass: 32g Using the formula: ? HMy original hypothesis was that as you go up the series of alcohols, less of the alcohol will have to be burnt for the given temperature rise. My results proved this hypothesis. The graph shows strong positive correlation proving that less alcohol is needed for the temperature rise as you go up the group. There are no anomalies, and there is hardly any scatter. When I compare my experimental data with my theoretical values I can see that although my experimental values follow the same trend, they show much less energy being given off per mole than the theoretical ones. This is because not all of the energy produced went into the water (explained in more detail in the evaluation). GCSE CHEMISTRY COURSEWORK: Evaluation. My experimental data agreed with the theoretically predicted values. When both sets of results were plotted onto a scatter graph, I could see that they both followed the same trend. However, the line representing the theoretically predicted values was lower down on the graph showing that the experimental values were lower than the predicted ones. This is because of the experimental errors detailed below. Reliability: I believe my data to be reliable. There is hardly any scatter as the results were close to the line, and there were no anomalies. The data was reliable enough to firmly support my conclusion. The fact that there was not much scatter shows this. However, the data was reliable but inaccurate because of the problems outlined below. If the data obtained was completely accurate then it would be on the theoretical data line. Experimental errors: It was impossible to get all the energy of the burning alcohol, using our equipment, into the can. Some inevitably escaped around the can and into the room. This explains why our results showed slightly more alcohol needing to be burned than the theoretical amount. Sources of experimental error:   Not all heat getting into the water (most escaped around the can or heated up the can)   Draughts blowing in from outside Modifications: If I was to do this experiment again I might either use a different calorimeter than a tin can i. e. one that conducted heat into the water more efficiently or simply put a lid on the can and insulate it. I would also do the experiment in an environment out of the open air to stop air currents changing my results and to concentrate the heat onto the water, rather than the air around. Further Work: I might do the same experiment but using alkanes instead of alcohols. I would investigate as to whether they produce the same trend as with alcohols and see whether they are more or less efficient.   GCSE Chemistry Coursework 1 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section.

The Bonsai

Bonsai All that I love I fold over once And once again And keep in a box Or a slit in a hollow post Or in my shoe. All that I love? Why, yes, but for the moment — And for all time, both. Something that folds and keeps easy, Son’s note or Dad’s one gaudy tie, A roto picture of a young queen, A blue Indian shawl, even A money bill. It’s utter sublimation A feat, this heart’s control Moment to moment To scale all love down To a cupped hand’s size, Till seashells are broken pieces From God’s own bright teeth. And life and love are real Things you can run and Breathless hand overTo the merest child. – Edith L. Tiempo * * * A first reading of Edith L. Tiempo’s signature poem is a tad confounding, for the first lady of Philippine poetry in English deploys the centripetal-centrifugal-centripetal (or inward-outward-inward) motion in expressing her profoundest thoughts and deepest feelings about love. The title itself, â€Å"Bonsa i,† is a bit misleading, since nowhere else in the poem are there any further references to plant life or the ancient Japanese technique of cultivating miniature trees or shrubs through dwarfing by selective pruning.Some might even argue that â€Å"Origami† is the better title choice, for at least the persona’s act of folding objects is a bit analogous to the Japanese art of paper folding to make complicated shapes. But this reader will prove at the end of this essay that â€Å"Bonsai† is the most appropriate title for the poem, something that is not quite obvious to most people after their perfunctory appraisal of this often misread literary masterpiece. However, despite the false lead, even a cursory perusal of the poem reveals to the sensitive and sensible reader that â€Å"Bonsai† is about love, if only because the four-letter word is mentioned in all four stanzas.In the first stanza, the persona declares that she folds everything that she loves and keeps them hidden in secret places: â€Å"a box,/ Or a slit in a hollow post,/ Or in my shoe. //† What then are the things she considers imperative enough to keep? At first glance, the catalogue of her beloved objects in the second stanza appears to be disparate, unrelated, almost random, if not completely aleatory. But since a literary sorceress like Tiempo seldom commits mistakes in conjuring appropriate images, then there must a be reason for singling out these particular items and not others.The more important query therefore is this: What do â€Å"Son’s note or Dad’s one gaudy tie,/ A roto[i] picture of a young queen,/ A blue Indian shawl, even/ A money bill. //† share in common? Besides being foldable and thus easy to keep, they must symbolize for the loving female persona important individuals and incidents in her life. For as the semiotician Roland Barthes correctly observes in A Lover’s Discourse: â€Å"Every object touched by the lo ved being’s body becomes part of that body, and the subject eagerly attaches himself to it. [ii] If we are to assume that the speaking voice of â€Å"Bonsai† closely resembles the poet’s own, then the first three objects must represent members of her immediate family: son Maldon; husband Edilberto (It is a well-known fact among writing fellows and panelists of the Silliman Writers’ Workshop that Edith fondly called the late fictionist and literary critic â€Å"Dad,† while being addressed by her husband as â€Å"Mom,† which is a common practice among Filipino couples. ; and daughter Rowena (Unknown to many, the current Program Administrator of the Iowa Writers’ Workshop is a former winner of the Miss Negros Oriental beauty contest sometime in the 1970s, another indicator of the Filipino flavor of the poem, since the Philippines is a pageant-obsessed Third World country. ). The referents of the last two items are more covert and thereby more difficult to decipher. At best, we can only speculate on the persons and/or events that make the two things significant: blue Indian shawl (Edith’s engagement date with Edilberto, her first winter in Iowa, her last autumn in Denver? ; money bill (Her initial salary from Silliman University, cash prize from the Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature? ). In the long run though the indeterminacy of the allusions does not really matter, for the opaqueness of the symbols leads not to generic obscurity and obfuscation, but to personal mythology and mystery. Perhaps part of the poem’s message is that the things a person considers memorable and therefore valuable most other people might think of as debris, detritus or dirt. Note that the adverb â€Å"even† modifying â€Å"money bill† is used to indicate something unexpected or unusual, which in the context of the poem seems to suggest that a money bill is not a conventional object to collect and treasure even by the most sentimental of persons. ) Suffice it to say that all five objects, which are outwardly ordinary and nondescript, acquire associative significations because they serve for the poetic persona as conduits of recall, like mementoes, souvenirs and keepsakes.Interestingly, the second stanza commences with what appears to be a rhetorical question (â€Å"All that I love? †), which the persona answers with a paradox: â€Å"Why, yes, but for the moment —/ And for all time, both. † The significance of these seemingly self- contradictory lines will be discussed towards the end of this essay, but for now this reader will focus on the fact that the persona pauses to contemplate on the germane issue of the scope of her love, before she proceeds to enumerate her loved ones’ memorabilia that she has decided to vouchsafe.Love for the female persona therefore is a conscious choice, a cognitive act not only an affective one, a motif that recurs in v arious degrees in most of her other love poems. In the third stanza, the persona explains the rationale behind her action: It’s utter sublimation A feat, this heart’s control Moment to moment To scale all love down To a cupped hand’s size, The keyword here is sublimation, which in psychology is the deflection of sexual energy or other atavistic biological impulse from its immediate goal to one of a higher social, moral or aesthetic nature or use.In chemistry, on the other hand, sublimation is the process of transforming a solid substance by heat into a vapor, which on cooling condenses again to solid form without apparent liquefaction. Inherent in both definitions is the act of refinement and purification through fire, since to sublimate in a sense is to make something sublime out of something sordid. In the latter a literal fire dissolves through a crucible the dross from the precious metal, while in the former it is furnace of the mind that burns away the supe rfluous from the crucial experiences.The second most important idea in this stanza is the procedure of scaling love down, which Tiempo asserts is a feat by itself, an exceptional accomplishment of the female persona’s sentimental heart which is achieved through utmost discipline and restraint. But aside from mere manageability, why is it necessary to miniaturize love, to whittle it down to the size of â€Å"a cupped hand†? The answer to this pertinent question is given, albeit in a tangential fashion, in the fourth and last stanza: â€Å"And life and love are real/ Things you can run and/ Breathless hand over/ To the merest child. Love as â€Å"real things† or concrete objects rather than as abstract concepts is easier to pass on, since it has become more tangible and thus more comprehensible to most everyone else, including children and one’s beloved offspring. It also underscores the importance of bequeathing the legacy of love to the next generation, since as the cliche goes â€Å"children are the future of the world,† which makes â€Å"the merest child,† and not the wisest woman nor the strongest man, the ideal recipient of such a wonderful gift.The image of the cupped hand also emphasizes the idea that in the act of giving the one offering the bequest is also a beggar of sorts, since the beneficiary can always refuse to accept the heirlooms being proffered. But another important element is introduced in the ultimate stanza, for the persona by some extraordinary leap of the imagination perceives the seashells on the beach as â€Å"broken pieces/ From God’s own bright teeth,† which for a better understanding of â€Å"Bonsai† must be elaborated on, so that readers of Philippine poetry from English can fully appreciate the tight structural organization of the poem.Gemino H. Abad in his remarkable essay â€Å"Mapping Our Poetic Terrain: Filipino Poetry in English from 1905 to the Present†[i ii]connects this image to the paradoxical lines of the second stanza â€Å"for the moment —/ And for all time, both. † This reader cannot help but agree, since indeed the five objects mentioned by the persona being mementoes of the people she loves are metonyms of memory, shattered but shimmering fragments of chronology, captured important moments immortalized in the heart and mind, if we are to visualize Time itself as a manifestation of God.Of greater consequence, thought, is that this divine figure completes Tiempo’s poetic picture about love and remembrance by adding the spiritual detail, for love like the unmentionable Hebrew name of the Almighty is also a Tetragrammaton, a four-letter word, which has probably engendered the often-quoted adage that â€Å"God is Love, and Love is God. † Structurally speaking, her most famous poem can thus be diagrammed in this manner: TREE/SHRUB ——- bonsai LOVE ————- sonâ€⠄¢s note, Dad's one gaudy tie, etc.GOD ————– seashells MAN/WOMAN ——– merest child On the left side of the chart are the huge objects, concepts or people: full-size flora (Tree/Shrub), big abstract words (Love, God) and grownups (Man/Woman). Their miniature analogues, in contrast, are found on the right side of the chart. However, these diminutive parallels, especially the mementoes, retain the spirit of their larger versions, since the process of sublimation reduces things only in terms of size but not in essence.Ultimately, this makes â€Å"Bonsai† the perfect title of the poem, for a bonsai has all the necessary parts that make a tree or a shrub what it is: roots, a trunk, branches, leaves and flowers, albeit in smaller portions; in the same manner that love even if sublimated by the heart and the mind still preserves its sum and substance, its lifeblood in the truest sense of the written word and the word made flesh.

Philosophy of life Essay

The meaning of life, defined by Victor E. Frankl, is the will to find your meaning in life. It is not the meaning of life in general, but rather the specific meaning of a person’s life at a given moment. He believes that if you are approached with the question of â€Å"what is the meaning of my life† or in this case, â€Å"life is meaningless,† then you should reverse the question to that person asking the question. For example: What are you bringing to me? What are you as an individual contributing to this life? This forces the person in question to take a look at themselves and to ultimately be responsible. Frankl says that if you are a responsible member of society than the meaning of life transcends from yourself rather from your own psyche. He also says that if we for some reason cannot find meaning within ourselves it has to be from some outside source. This is referred to as service. And an example of this is love. Victor Frankl describes three ways in which we can discover the meaning of life; Creating work-doing a deed, experiencing something-someone, and by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering. There are several reasons why a person could be feeling that their life is meaningless or has no meaning. According to Victor Frankl these reasons could be existential frustration, existential vacuum, and the meaning of suffering. Frankl breaks down the meaning of existential frustration as so, it can be referred to as existence itself ? the specifically mode of being, the meaning of existence, and striving to find concrete meaning in personal existence, which is the will to meaning. Existence itself, in simpler terms is just existing and the human mode itself. The meaning of existence is the question in which we often ask ourselves; Why are we here? When we strive to find concrete meaning in personal existence, we are looking for the personal meaning for existence. Basically what Frankl is saying is that when we are dealing wit the existential frustration we are looking for given meaning that isn’t there. (There is no meaning). On the other hand there is the existential vacuum, which is when you cannot find meaning in your life. Frankl says that the existential vacuum manifests itself mainly in the state of boredom. It’s when you feel that you have no structure in your life, no one telling you what to do, your not learning anything, and basically your not doing anything with your life. Because of this you’re going to become a conformist or a totalitarian, which is either doing what everyone else does or doing what people tell you to do. You’re not thinking for yourself. You’re also going to become bored. In the state of boredom the person can start to see life as meaningless, esp. the person questioning the meaning of their life. They start to question themselves and wonder what their purpose and meaning of their life is. This boredom can be a result of condition called Sunday Neurosis. Sunday Neurosis takes place when a person has worked hard all week long or for many days on end. (We know this as a result of tension; it’s what drives us and keeps us going. It promotes meaning and gives us goals. It is not the same as stress, because stress is an overabundance of tension. ) Then a day comes along when you have nothing planned, nothing going on and you don’t know what to do with yourself. Therefore boredom results and when there is boredom there is no meaning. And when there is no meaning we fill that emptiness with negative things, like money, power, and pleasure, basically we get into trouble. The meaning of suffering is another reason why a person might be questioning the meaning of their life. Frankl says that one of the basic aspects of logotherapy that mans main concern is not to gain pleasure or to avoid pain, but to see the meaning of his life. This is why man is willing to suffer in order to find a meaning for his life. But he also says that suffering is not necessary to find meaning in life. Although suffering is inevitably unavoidable, and if it was it would be meaningful to remove it, because it wouldn’t make much sense not to do so. Another aspect about suffering is that it stops being suffering the moment we find meaning in it. Now that possible reasons for why a person may be feeling that their life has no meaning has been addressed, here are some possible solutions that Frankl might suggest. Once the person has discovered why their life is meaningless they need to rediscover their meaning that they lost. They could ask themselves a question like, what was I born with and what is the greater meaning in that? Because it is believed that you’re born with a meaning that every single person on this Earth is born with a meaning. Life doesn’t owe you anything. Basically you’re the responsible one for all the stuff you put out into the world during your life. Another thing that he might talk about is what the person does everyday. If they aren’t doing anything with their life he might suggest them getting involved with something to help create tension. Since tension drives us and pushes us to reach our goals, it helps give us meaning. Frankl also sees responsible-ness as the essence of human existence. He says that everyman has a specific, unique job in life that he is too fulfill an that no one else can do this or replace this one person in the same way. â€Å"As each situation in life represents a challenge to man and presents a problem for him to solve, the question of the meaning of life may actually be reversed. Each man is questioned by life and he can only answer to life by answering for his own life; he can only respond be being responsible. † Frankl also says, † Live as if were living already for the second time, and as if you had acted the first time as wrongly as you were about to act now! † If it was me taking this person, sitting them down, after analyzing what could have caused this sense of unmeaning in their life, I would look at the options of how to find meaning. I agree with Frankl when he talks about meaning as tension and responsibility. I also agree with him when he discusses his views on how everyone is born with meaning and that everyone has a set occupation or vocation on life. I believe that everyone is unique in his or her own way. Therefore why should everyone’s lives be the same and have the same meaning. They don’t. We are born with meaning and we have to find that meaning through our actions and our drive to live life and our interactions with the people and the things around us. Usually when I am presented with material in school I tend to form my opinion by looking at both sides if an issue, because there are usually two sides to every story. But by looking at Frankl and examining what he has to say about the meaning of life, suffering, love, frustration, boredom, tension, etc, I have rally gained a lot of knowledge that almost is common sense. If you sit and take the time to read the material through thoroughly you can see exactly where he is coming from. He’ll take a difficult situation, such as suffering, and turn it completely around. As far as suffering goes I try to do the same thing, in a way. When Mark Felice died last October it crushed me. But I tried to look at the positive side and say well, his suffering is over and he was here to teach us how to live to be stronger and better people. Through our suffering, over the loss of his life, we ended his suffering. This is kind of what Frankl does, he turns things around and makes you view things from a different perspective. I like his way of thinking because it’s not always something that I would think of off the top of my head. Overall, I enjoyed the book although it was difficult at times to read, but I think I gained knowledge from it and see different ways to look at things now.

How the Rediscovery of the Works of Aristotle Challenged the Church

Rediscovery of the Works of Aristotle challenged the Church in several ways as it triggered the Scientific Renaissance. This was characterized by many inventions and discoveries. It is the discoveries that challenged the Church then and continue to do even today. Some of these discoveries caused people to start doubting what the church and Christianity beliefs had made them to believe. The developments in the study of the universe especially brought contradictions in what was discovered and what the Church Taught. An example is that while it was discovered that the sun did not move, the Bible which was very fundamental to the Church had verses that implied that the Sun moved. Developments in Astronomy a result of the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle are hence an example of its challenge to the Church (Kretzmann & Stump, 2001). What Scholasticism is and how it attempted to Reconcile Faith with Reason Scholasticism is a method of teaching where learners are encouraged to reason dialectically. This tool for learning enables the learners to learn how to argue with those holding beliefs and ideas that are different from theirs hence are able to persuade them to join them (Alvarez, 1971). The sole objective of Scholasticism was to resolve ideas that were contradicting or conflicting. This is because even though the ideas and beliefs were different, they shared some common principles which brought out the conflicts as individuals argued on which ones were right hence in an attempt to find the answers, Scholasticism was invented. It attempted to reconcile reason and faith by looking using Aristotle's philosophy of human reasoning to explain the Christian faith that was characterized by supernatural contents that could not be easily understood. It sought to bring together the wisdom of the Christianity religion and that of the Aristotle and other Greeks. The movement sought to integrate the two, that is the secular beliefs and Christian beliefs so as to come up with an ordered system used reason to explain faith. 2. How Renaissance Altered Views of Humanity and the Human Relationship with God prevalent during the Middle Ages. Renaissance period which was characterized by numerous cultural changes altered views of humanity in many ways. It emphasized so much on reasoning that some views of humanity that initially were believed to be against humanity became morally right due to reasoning. Most of the issues that are perceived to be inhuman such as suicide for example have their root s in this period. This is because it was during this period that individuals reasoned that actions such as suicide were the better option (Alvarez, 1971). For example it was reasoned that it was better for old people to commit suicide than to continue living as they suffer the complications that come with old age. The stoics were amongst the humanists who supported suicide in the event that it was done under such circumstances. Suicide was now seen and described as good death as it relieved younger people the burden of taking care of or killing individuals who were too old. Humanists such as Plato and Aristotle argued against suicide claiming that no circumstances could justify it as it left the responsibilities of those who killed themselves abandoned and denied the community a citizen who could contribute to its development. Other philosophers such as Jewish and Christian religions however believed that such action were against God’s desire and human good as they affected human responsibility to god as he created life to be preserved. Philosophers such as Michel de Montaigne even challenged condemnation of suicide arguing that it was a moral thing to do under certain circumstances and that it should be perceived as a religious belief but as a matter of choice as every human being had the freedom to choose. During the middle ages, the prevalence of human relationship with God was very low. This can be attributed to the many scientific discoveries that challenged the church and its beliefs hence deviating people’s beliefs from its teachings. The many philosophers and their theories also caused confusion causing their relationship with God not to be as strong as it was before. The Humanists, what they said and how they Contributed to Modern Education. Humanists scholars who challenged some of the philosophers shaped and established intellectual landscape from the middle age period to the present day. These philosophers include Thomas More and Niccolo Machiavelli who criticized contemporary government and some of the secular beliefs. Their theories and teachings revived the Roman’s and Greek's way of thinking and ideas. The challenging of Aristotelian status quo by humanists such as Martin Luther led to the introduction of faith and justification ideas that were new, liberal and radical. The justification theory is very crucial to modern education as many fields of study call for justification to be made before they can be accepted. This goes for research too. 3. How Dangerous Beauty Reflects Values Dominant in Venice and how it depicts relationship patterns between man and women. The fact that Marco was discouraged by his family from veronica even though he loved her implies that individuals in Venice value wealth more than any other thing. Veronica’s decision to become a courtesan in an effort to get money that would support her and her mother reflects the same value of the Venice individuals preferring wealth so much that they could even compromise their principles. The fact that Veronica was not the only one and that even her mother and grandmother had done the same thing implies that prostitution is a dominant thing in Venice especially with men of high social standing. This value has negative impact on the relationship between men and women. This goes especially for the married couples. We observe that Marco's marriage started experiencing problems as he had no intimate relationship with his wife once he started being with Veronica. The marriage eventually broke up. It can be concluded that both the values discussed above negatively affect the relationship between men and women. 4. How Lady Jane show the dynastic and religious conflicts prominent in England in the 16th Century The two weeks that Lady Jane ruled England and her execution brought out the existing dynastic and religious conflicts prominent in the Kingdom. We observe she was not the right person to inherit the throne from Edward VI. The only reason Edward chose her to succeed him and not Mary his half sister who was the rightful heiress at the time was because just like he was, Jane was a staunch protestant while Mary was Catholic. There seems to have been a religious conflict as the English nobles did not want the throne to be given to a catholic. Mary went away and gathered herself support. She later came back and denounced Jane as the Queen of England. According to the law she was the rightful heiress hence the parliament could do nothing but proclaim her as the Queen. Mary then imprisoned Jane and her husband. This brings out the dynasty conflicts in England within the Royal families. When Mary married a Roman catholic Prince from Spain called Philip, the protestants in England rebelled and carried out demonstrations as they were against catholic religion. Some even called fore the restoration of Jane as the Queen. This made Mary to execute her so as to repress any future rebellions and unrest within the kingdom. It was observed that this marked the climax of religious and dynasty conflicts in the kingdom at the time as Protestants did not want to be ruled by Catholics while the Catholics did not want to lose their grip on the throne. It can hence be concluded that dynasty and religious conflicts were prominent in England during the 16th Century. 5. The Hundred Schools of Thought, their chief Theorists, and what they said. Especially Confucius. The hundred schools of thought were schools and philosophers that sprang up and got established from the period 770-221B. C. E in China. These schools flourished during an era that the country was experiencing culture and intellectual expansion. The thoughts that were developed during this time influence the country up to now. The schools developed were confucianism, school of law, languages, Moism , amongst several others. The theorists of confucianism were Xunzi who argued that humans are not born good but that goodness is a virtue that is developed with time through training of ones conducts and desire. Mengzi another confucianism theorists argued that every individual had a responsibility and obligation to every one else in the society and not just to those they were acquainted with. He explained that one had to be careful in their action as they affected many people. Kongzi argued that ideal human beings were those that were gentlemen. He also explained social stratification and political governance could only exist peacefully by ethical values. He argued that good leader needed to be virtues in order for them to rule well. He added that the best relationship was achieved when leaders remained leaders while subjects accordingly remained so. 6. Buddhist Thought. The Buddhist Thought is based on three fundamental principles namely impermanence, selflessness and unsatisfactoriness. The thought is that all; things in life come from one source and eventually go back to the same source. It explains that everything in the world is connected to each other and none can exist independently or occurs apart from the rest. Its view is that everything in the world undergoes transformation and some change during its existence. This according to the thought is that things do not cease to exist, they only change their state through transformation and exist in other forms. This thought is what explains the religion's belief in rebirth. 7. Historians talk about the revolution of the 11th Century, which launch a series of conflicts between Church and state. What form did these conflicts take? The 11th century was characterized by many conflicts between the Church and state. These conflicts were mainly between kings and Popes. As both parties sought to have more power than the other, conflicts arose. Initially monarchs had ruled both the throne and the church as it was believed that they had divine right. But then, in contrast the pope was believed to be God's vicar on earth hence having the divine authority from God to the state. (Elliott, 1877). This resulted to the church having more power in the West but as secular kingdoms flourished, power struggle between the two sprang up. The conflict was between the secular ideologies of the state and the sacred ideologies of the church. Eventually the church lost some of its powers to the state.